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<title>IEC - Perguntas e respostas recentes em Fundamentos</title>
<link>http://iec.elgui.net/?qa=qa/virican/fundamentos</link>
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<title>Respondida: Como preparo a seção &quot;Objetivos&quot; de meu trabalho científico em área biomédica?</title>
<link>http://iec.elgui.net/?qa=162/como-preparo-secao-objetivos-trabalho-cientifico-biomedica&amp;show=163#a163</link>
<description>&lt;p data-path-to-node=&quot;9&quot;&gt;Na praxe da boa comunicação científica, a seção &quot;Objetivos&quot; de um projeto de pesquisa ou relatório deve apresentar dois componentes fundamentais e complementares:&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p data-path-to-node=&quot;10&quot;&gt;&lt;strong data-path-to-node=&quot;10&quot; data-index-in-node=&quot;0&quot;&gt;1. Objetivo Geral:&amp;nbsp;&lt;/strong&gt;Deve ser um enunciado preciso da pergunta científica que o estudo se propõe a responder. Ele deve explicitar a hipótese central de trabalho, visando elucidar — total ou parcialmente — a lacuna de conhecimento apresentada na Introdução. Academicamente, o Objetivo Geral atua como a ponte lógica entre a fundamentação teórica e a execução experimental. Sua redação deve emergir de forma natural ao leitor na transição final da Introdução, consolidando o propósito maior da pesquisa em uma única sentença diretriz.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p data-path-to-node=&quot;11&quot;&gt;&lt;strong data-path-to-node=&quot;11&quot; data-index-in-node=&quot;0&quot;&gt;2. Objetivos Específicos&lt;/strong&gt;: Devem explicitar com precisão o escopo das etapas do estudo, indicando sucintamente os modelos adotados (ex: &lt;em data-path-to-node=&quot;11&quot; data-index-in-node=&quot;134&quot;&gt;in vitro&lt;/em&gt;, &lt;em data-path-to-node=&quot;11&quot; data-index-in-node=&quot;144&quot;&gt;in vivo&lt;/em&gt;) e os parâmetros biológicos ou físico-químicos a serem avaliados. As técnicas analíticas só devem ser mencionadas se forem intrínsecas ao resultado pretendido.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;ul data-path-to-node=&quot;12&quot;&gt;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p data-path-to-node=&quot;12,0,0&quot;&gt;&lt;strong data-path-to-node=&quot;12,0,0&quot; data-index-in-node=&quot;0&quot;&gt;✅ Exemplo:&lt;/strong&gt; Ao definir a determinação da expressão gênica, especifique se a análise ocorrerá em nível transcricional (mRNA) ou proteico, e a natureza das amostras (células, tecidos, sangue, etc.).&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li&gt;&lt;p data-path-to-node=&quot;12,1,0&quot;&gt;&lt;strong data-path-to-node=&quot;12,1,0&quot; data-index-in-node=&quot;0&quot;&gt;❌O que evitar:&lt;/strong&gt;&amp;nbsp;Detalhamento metodológico excessivo. Não é necessário indicar, por exemplo, o uso de qPCR ou &lt;em data-path-to-node=&quot;12,1,0&quot; data-index-in-node=&quot;109&quot;&gt;Western blot&lt;/em&gt;. Tais detalhes pertencem à seção de &lt;strong data-path-to-node=&quot;12,1,0&quot; data-index-in-node=&quot;158&quot;&gt;&quot;Materiais e Métodos&quot;&lt;/strong&gt;, pois a substituição de uma técnica por outra mais eficiente durante a execução não deve alterar a essência do objetivo proposto.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ul&gt;</description>
<category>Fundamentos</category>
<guid isPermaLink="true">http://iec.elgui.net/?qa=162/como-preparo-secao-objetivos-trabalho-cientifico-biomedica&amp;show=163#a163</guid>
<pubDate>Fri, 27 Feb 2026 15:49:10 +0000</pubDate>
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<title>Respondida: Como fazer citações adequadamente em textos científicos e técnicos?</title>
<link>http://iec.elgui.net/?qa=98/fazer-citacoes-adequadamente-textos-cientificos-tecnicos&amp;show=151#a151</link>
<description>&lt;p&gt;Dada a recorrência dos problemas de citação em produçoes científicas, segue um guia rápido que gerei sobre esse tema. Este guia foi originalmente criado em 18/Ago/2025 com auxílio IA Gemini v2.5 para organização, checagem e enriquecimento de informações. Atualizaçoes serão efetuadas aqui conforme necessidade.&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Guia de Boas Práticas em Citação Científica: Problemas Comuns e Níveis de Gravidade&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;Este guia compila os problemas mais frequentes em trabalhos científicos, organizados por nível de gravidade, do mais severo ao menos grave. O objetivo é fornecer uma referência clara para a elaboração de trabalhos mais rigorosos e eticamente corretos.&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;strong&gt;I. Problemas de Alta Gravidade: Violações de Ética e Integridade Científica&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;Esses problemas são as infrações mais sérias na pesquisa, comprometendo a integridade acadêmica e a ética profissional.&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;strong&gt;I.1. Falta de Referências para Citações Efetuadas&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;A omissão de uma citação para uma informação, ideia ou dado que não é de autoria própria. Esta prática é considerada plágio, uma das maiores violações da ética em pesquisa, e pode levar a sanções severas.&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;strong&gt;I.2. Citação de Artigos Retratados&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;A inclusão de referências a trabalhos que foram formalmente retirados da literatura científica devido a erros graves ou má conduta. Citar um artigo retratado sem a devida ressalva pode disseminar informações incorretas e comprometer a credibilidade do seu trabalho.&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;strong&gt;I.3. Citação Exagerada ou Insuficiente&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;Citar excessivamente (over-citation) ou de forma insuficiente (under-citation) uma informação. Ambos os extremos podem prejudicar a clareza e a credibilidade do texto. A citação insuficiente pode ser considerada uma forma de plágio.&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;strong&gt;II. Problemas de Gravidade Média: Falhas de Metodologia e Precisão&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;Essas falhas indicam falta de rigor metodológico e podem comprometer a validade e a precisão das conclusões apresentadas no trabalho.&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;strong&gt;II.1. Trabalhos que Não se Aplicam para as Informações em que São Citados&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;A citação de um artigo para sustentar uma afirmação que não está diretamente relacionada aos seus objetivos, resultados ou conclusões. Isso demonstra uma leitura superficial e falta de precisão na aplicação da literatura, levando a argumentos sem o devido embasamento.&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;strong&gt;II.2. Vieses de Citação (Citation Bias)&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;A seleção tendenciosa de referências, seja para apoiar apenas uma hipótese ou para excluir trabalhos de certos grupos ou com resultados nulos. Esse viés distorce a representação do estado da arte do campo, ignorando evidências importantes.&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;strong&gt;II.3. Citação de Referência Secundária como Primária&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;Este problema não se trata de usar artigos de revisão, que são ferramentas essenciais para consolidar o conhecimento. O erro grave ocorre quando se utiliza uma dada publicação (quer seja ou não trabalho de revisão) para referenciar uma descoberta específica e seminal que foi publicada originalmente em um outro trabalho, o artigo primário. Para informações que são o cerne do seu argumento, o correto é sempre buscar e citar a fonte primária, garantindo a precisão e dando o devido crédito aos autores originais.&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;strong&gt;II.4. Trabalhos de Circulação Limitada sem Justificativa&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;Citação de fontes não revisadas por pares (e.g., teses, anais de congresso, artigos de revistas predatórias). A falta de revisão por pares pode acarretar uso de fontes com conteúdo inválido ou comprometido, refletindo, consequentemente, na credibilidade do trabalho que o cita.&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;strong&gt;III. Problemas de Menor Gravidade: Questões de Estilo e Rigor Metodológico&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;Embora menos graves, esses problemas técnicos afetam a apresentação, a clareza e a consistência do trabalho, demonstrando falta de atenção a detalhes relevantes para boas práticas científicas.&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;strong&gt;III.1. Citação de Livros Didáticos&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;Referenciar livros-texto de graduação como a fonte principal de uma informação científica. Livros didáticos são fontes secundárias; a prática recomendada é citar a fonte primária, ou seja, o artigo científico original.&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;strong&gt;III.2. Trabalhos Muito Antigos em Temas Muito Dinâmicos&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;A citação de artigos desatualizados (e.g., &amp;gt; 10 anos) em áreas de ciência que evoluem rapidamente, como biologia molecular ou oncologia. Isso pode levar à apresentação de informações que não refletem o conhecimento mais recente. No entanto, a citação de trabalhos clássicos ou seminais pode ser justificável.&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;strong&gt;III.3. Inconsistência no Estilo de Citação&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;A não adesão a um estilo de citação uniforme (e.g., Vancouver, APA) ao longo do texto e na lista de referências. Embora não seja uma violação ética, demonstra falta de rigor técnico e dificulta a consulta das fontes.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;hr&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;</description>
<category>Fundamentos</category>
<guid isPermaLink="true">http://iec.elgui.net/?qa=98/fazer-citacoes-adequadamente-textos-cientificos-tecnicos&amp;show=151#a151</guid>
<pubDate>Mon, 18 Aug 2025 15:12:45 +0000</pubDate>
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<title>Respondida: Para que serve o índice h?</title>
<link>http://iec.elgui.net/?qa=149/para-que-serve-o-indice-h&amp;show=150#a150</link>
<description>&lt;p&gt;O índice h (&lt;em&gt;h-index&lt;/em&gt;) é um indicador cienciométrico para avaliar a produtividade e o impacto de um pesquisador, grupo de pesquisa, instituição, periódico, etc. De forma sucinta, um índice h igual a &quot;x&quot; se ele(a) publicou &quot;x&quot; artigos que foram citados pelo menos &quot;x&quot; vezes cada um. Isso significa que a métrica leva em consideração tanto o número de publicações quanto a frequência com que as publicações estão sendo mencionadas pela comunidade científica, medida pelo número de citações que elas receberam.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;Para uma rápida leitura sobre cienciometria, consulte:&lt;br&gt;ELGUI DE OLIVEIRA D. Princípios de Cienciometria. In: Best Practices in Biomedical Sciences and Research (website). DOI: &lt;a rel=&quot;nofollow&quot; href=&quot;http://doi.org/10.17605/OSF.IO/FN8P4&quot;&gt;10.17605/OSF.IO/FN8P4&lt;/a&gt;. Disponível em: &lt;a rel=&quot;nofollow&quot; href=&quot;https://osf.io/a75bd&quot;&gt;https://osf.io/a75bd&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;A apresentação a seguir também pode ajudar: &lt;a href=&quot;https://virican.net/lnk/dlsa1he&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot; target=&quot;_blank&quot;&gt;https://virican.net/lnk/dlsa1he&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;</description>
<category>Fundamentos</category>
<guid isPermaLink="true">http://iec.elgui.net/?qa=149/para-que-serve-o-indice-h&amp;show=150#a150</guid>
<pubDate>Fri, 06 Jun 2025 19:16:52 +0000</pubDate>
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<title>Respondida: Como calcular o poder de testes estatísticos comumente utilizados?</title>
<link>http://iec.elgui.net/?qa=114/calcular-poder-testes-estatisticos-comumente-utilizados&amp;show=115#a115</link>
<description>&lt;p&gt;Algumas ferramentas online úteis identificadas (acesso em Fev/2022):&lt;/p&gt;&lt;ol&gt;&lt;li&gt;Website &lt;a target=&quot;_blank&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot; href=&quot;https://www.statskingdom.com/index.html&quot;&gt;Statistics Kingdom&lt;/a&gt;: https://www.statskingdom.com/statistical-power-calculators.html&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li&gt;Website &lt;a rel=&quot;nofollow&quot; href=&quot;http://PowerAndSampleSize.com&quot;&gt;Power and Sample Size&lt;/a&gt;: &lt;a href=&quot;https://powerandsamplesize.com/Calculators/&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot; target=&quot;_blank&quot;&gt;https://powerandsamplesize.com/Calculators/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;</description>
<category>Fundamentos</category>
<guid isPermaLink="true">http://iec.elgui.net/?qa=114/calcular-poder-testes-estatisticos-comumente-utilizados&amp;show=115#a115</guid>
<pubDate>Mon, 07 Feb 2022 20:04:39 +0000</pubDate>
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<title>Respondida: Quais são os problemas mais comuns a serem evitados na análise estatística de resultados?</title>
<link>http://iec.elgui.net/?qa=54/problemas-comuns-evitados-analise-estatistica-resultados&amp;show=55#a55</link>
<description>&lt;p&gt;Há informações muito relevantes à respeito em &lt;a href=&quot;http://biostat.mc.vanderbilt.edu/wiki/Main/ManuscriptChecklist.&amp;nbsp;&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot; target=&quot;_blank&quot;&gt;http://biostat.mc.vanderbilt.edu/wiki/Main/ManuscriptChecklist.&amp;nbsp;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;Abaixo está uma síntese do material com tópicos e alguns trechos destacados. Uma versão para impressão do texto completo está disponível &lt;a rel=&quot;nofollow&quot; href=&quot;https://drive.google.com/open?id=10xOYeKM3yli8ddm_5eBcDPb18PRJ09Tp&quot;&gt;neste link&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;blockquote&gt;&lt;h1&gt;Statistical Problems to Document and to Avoid&lt;/h1&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;h2&gt;Design and Sample Size Problems&lt;/h2&gt;&lt;h3&gt;Use of an improper effect size&lt;/h3&gt;&lt;p&gt;Relying on standardized effect sizes&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;h2&gt;General Statistical Problems&lt;/h2&gt;&lt;h3&gt;Inefficient use of continuous variables&lt;/h3&gt;&lt;p&gt;Relying on assessment of normality of the data&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;Inappropriate use of parametric tests&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;Inappropriate&amp;nbsp;&lt;a target=&quot;_top&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot; href=&quot;http://biostat.mc.vanderbilt.edu/twiki/pub/Main/ClinStat/ci2.biostat1.pdf&quot;&gt;descriptive statistics&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;Failure to include&amp;nbsp;&lt;a target=&quot;_top&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot; href=&quot;http://biostat.mc.vanderbilt.edu/twiki/pub/Main/ClinStat/overview.clin.res.pdf&quot;&gt;Confidence intervals&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;Inappropriate choice of measure of change&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;Use of change scores in parallel-group designs&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;Inappropriate analysis of serial data (repeated measures)&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;Making conclusions from large&amp;nbsp;&lt;em&gt;P&lt;/em&gt;&amp;nbsp;-values |&amp;nbsp;&lt;a target=&quot;_top&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot; href=&quot;http://biostat.mc.vanderbilt.edu/twiki/pub/Main/ClinStat/overview.clin.res.pdf&quot;&gt;More Information&lt;/a&gt;&amp;nbsp;|&amp;nbsp;&lt;a target=&quot;_top&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot; href=&quot;http://bmj.bmjjournals.com/cgi/content/full/311/7003/485&quot;&gt;Absence of Evidence is not Evidence of Absence&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;hr&gt;&lt;h2&gt;Filtering&lt;/h2&gt;&lt;p&gt;There are many ways that authors have been seduced into taking results out of context, particularly when reporting the one favorable result out of dozens of attempted analyses. Filtering out (failing to report) the other analyses is scientifically suspect. At the very least, an investigator should disclose that the reported analyses involved filtering of some kind, and she should provide details. The context should be reported (e.g., &quot;Although this study is part of a planned one-year follow-up of gastric safety for Cox-2 inhibitors, here we only report the more favorable short term effects of the drug on gastric side effects.&quot;). To preserve type I error, filtering should be formally accounted for, which places the burden on the investigator of undertaking often complex Monte Carlo simulations.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;Here is a checklist of various ways of filtering results, all of which should be documented, and in many cases, re-thought:&lt;/p&gt;&lt;ul&gt;&lt;li&gt;Subsets of enrolled subjects&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li&gt;Selection of endpoint&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li&gt;Subset of follow-up interval&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li&gt;Selection of treatments&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li&gt;Selection of predictors&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li&gt;Selection of cutpoints for continuous variables&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ul&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;hr&gt;&lt;h2&gt;Missing Data&lt;/h2&gt;&lt;h2&gt;Multiple Comparison Problems&lt;/h2&gt;&lt;h2&gt;Multivariable Modeling Problems&lt;/h2&gt;&lt;h3&gt;Inappropriate linearity assumptions&lt;/h3&gt;&lt;h3&gt;Inappropriate model specification&lt;/h3&gt;&lt;h3&gt;Use of stepwise variable selection&lt;/h3&gt;&lt;h3&gt;Lack of insignificant variables in the final model&lt;/h3&gt;&lt;h3&gt;Overfitting and lack of model validation&lt;/h3&gt;&lt;p&gt;Failure to validate predictive accuracy with full resolution&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;Use of inappropriate measures of predictive accuracy&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;hr&gt;&lt;h2&gt;Use of Imprecise Language |&amp;nbsp;&lt;a target=&quot;_top&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot; href=&quot;http://biostat.mc.vanderbilt.edu/twiki/pub/Main/ClinStat/glossary.pdf&quot;&gt;Glossary&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/h2&gt;&lt;p&gt;It is important to distinguish rates from probabilities, odds ratios from risk ratios, and various other terms. The word&amp;nbsp;&lt;em&gt;risk&lt;/em&gt;&amp;nbsp;usually means the same thing as&amp;nbsp;&lt;em&gt;probability&lt;/em&gt;. Here are some common mistakes seen in manuscripts:&lt;/p&gt;&lt;ul&gt;&lt;li&gt;&lt;em&gt;risk ratio&lt;/em&gt;&amp;nbsp;or&amp;nbsp;&lt;em&gt;RR&lt;/em&gt;&amp;nbsp;used in place of&amp;nbsp;&lt;em&gt;odds ratio&lt;/em&gt;&amp;nbsp;when an odds ratio was computed&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li&gt;&lt;em&gt;reduction in risk&lt;/em&gt;&amp;nbsp;used in place of&amp;nbsp;&lt;em&gt;reduction in odds&lt;/em&gt;; for example an odds ratio of 0.8 could be referred to as a 20% reduction in the odds of an event, but not as a 20% reduction in risk&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li&gt;&lt;em&gt;risk ratio&lt;/em&gt;&amp;nbsp;used in place of&amp;nbsp;&lt;em&gt;hazard ratio&lt;/em&gt;&amp;nbsp;when a Cox proportional hazards model is used; the proper term&amp;nbsp;&lt;em&gt;hazard ratio&lt;/em&gt;&amp;nbsp;should be used to describe ratios arising from the Cox model. These are ratios of instantaneous event rates (hazard rates) and&amp;nbsp;&lt;strong&gt;not&lt;/strong&gt;&amp;nbsp;ratios of probabilities.&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li&gt;&lt;em&gt;multivariate model&lt;/em&gt;&amp;nbsp;used in place of&amp;nbsp;&lt;em&gt;multivariable model&lt;/em&gt;; when there is a single response (dependent) variable, the model is&amp;nbsp;&lt;em&gt;univariate&lt;/em&gt;.&amp;nbsp;&lt;em&gt;Multivariate&lt;/em&gt;&amp;nbsp;is reserved to refer to a model that simultaneously deals with multiple response variables.&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ul&gt;&lt;hr&gt;&lt;h2&gt;Graphics |&amp;nbsp;&lt;a target=&quot;_top&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot; href=&quot;http://biostat.mc.vanderbilt.edu/twiki/pub/Main/StatGraphCourse/graphscourse.pdf&quot;&gt;Handouts&lt;/a&gt;&amp;nbsp;| Advice from the&amp;nbsp;&lt;a target=&quot;_top&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot; href=&quot;http://www.ctan.org/tex-archive/graphics/pgf/base/doc/generic/pgf/pgfmanual.pdf&quot;&gt;PGF manual&lt;/a&gt;&amp;nbsp;(chapter 6)&lt;/h2&gt;&lt;ul&gt;&lt;li&gt;Pie charts are visual disasters&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li&gt;Bar charts with error bars are often used by researchers to&amp;nbsp;&lt;a rel=&quot;nofollow&quot; href=&quot;http://biostat.mc.vanderbilt.edu/wiki/bin/view/Main/DynamitePlots&quot;&gt;hide the raw data&lt;/a&gt;&amp;nbsp;and thus are often unscientific; for continuous response variables that are skewed or have for example fewer than 15 observations per category, the raw data should almost always be&amp;nbsp;&lt;a rel=&quot;nofollow&quot; href=&quot;http://biostat.mc.vanderbilt.edu/wiki/bin/view/Main/DynamitePlots&quot;&gt;shown&lt;/a&gt;&amp;nbsp;in a research paper.&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li&gt;Dot charts are far better than bar charts, because they allow more categories, category names are instantly readable, and error bars can be two-sided without causing an optical illusion that distorts the perception of the length of a bar&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li&gt;Directly label categories and lines when possible, to allow the reader to avoid having to read a symbol legend&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li&gt;Multi-panel charts (dot charts, line graphs, scatterplots, box plots, CDFs, histograms, etc.) have been shown to be easier to interpret than having multiple symbols, colors, hatching, etc., within one panel&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li&gt;Displays that keep continuous variables continuous are preferred&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ul&gt;&lt;hr&gt;&lt;h2&gt;Tables |&amp;nbsp;&lt;a target=&quot;_top&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot; href=&quot;http://biostat.mc.vanderbilt.edu/twiki/pub/Main/StatReport/summary.pdf&quot;&gt;Examples&lt;/a&gt;&amp;nbsp;(see section 4.2)&lt;/h2&gt;&lt;p&gt;As stated in Northridge&amp;nbsp;&lt;em&gt;et al&lt;/em&gt;&amp;nbsp;(see below), &quot;The text&amp;nbsp;&lt;em&gt;explains&lt;/em&gt;&amp;nbsp;the data, while tables&amp;nbsp;&lt;em&gt;display&lt;/em&gt;&amp;nbsp;the data. That is, text pertaining to the table reports the main results and points out patterns and anomalies, but avoids replicating the detail of the display.&quot; In many cases, it is best to replace tables with graphics.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;hr&gt;&lt;h2&gt;Ways Medical Journals Could Improve Statistical Reporting&lt;/h2&gt;&lt;ol&gt;&lt;li&gt;Require that the Methods section includes a detailed and reproducible description of the statistical methods.&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li&gt;Require that the Methods section includes a description of the statistical software used for the analysis and sample size calculations.&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li&gt;Require authors to submit a diskette with their data files as a spreadsheet or statistical software file when submitting manuscripts for publication.&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li&gt;Pay an experienced biostatistician to review every manuscript.&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li&gt;Require exact P values, reported consistently to 3 decimal places, rather than NS or P&amp;lt;0.05, unless P&amp;lt;0.001 or space does not permit exact P Values - as in a complex table or Figure.&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li&gt;Require that the Methods section contains enough detail about how the sample size was calculated so that another statistician could read the report and reproduce the calculations.&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li&gt;Do not allow ambiguous reporting of percentages, such as &quot;The recurrence rate in the control group was 50% and we calculated that the sample size required to detect a 20% reduction would be 93 in each group.&quot; Some authors mean 30% (50%-20%=30%) and some mean 40% (20% of 50% is 10%, 50%-10%=40%). Require that the authors clarify this.&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li&gt;Print the Methods section in a font the same size as the rest of the paper.&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li&gt;Require 95% confidence interval for all important results, especially those supporting the conclusions. Require authors to justify the logic of using standard errors.&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li&gt;Identify every statistical test used for every P value. In tables, this can be accomplished with footnotes and in figures the legend can describe the test used.&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li&gt;Enforce some consistency of statistical reporting. Do not allow authors to invent names for statistical methods.&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li&gt;Require that the authors describe who performed the statistical analysis. This is especially important if the analyses were performed by the biostatistics section of a pharmaceutical company.&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;hr&gt;&lt;h1&gt;Useful Articles and Web Sites with Statistical Guidance for Authors&lt;/h1&gt;&lt;ul&gt;&lt;li&gt;Northridge ME, Levin B, Feinleib M, Susser MW:&amp;nbsp;&lt;a target=&quot;_top&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot; href=&quot;http://80-proquest.umi.com.proxy.library.vanderbilt.edu/pqdlink?index=9&amp;amp;did=000000013351636&amp;amp;SrchMode=3&amp;amp;sid=1&amp;amp;Fmt=6&amp;amp;VInst=PROD&amp;amp;VType=PQD&amp;amp;RQT=309&amp;amp;VName=PQD&amp;amp;TS=1093783867&amp;amp;clientId=2335%20Editorial:%20statistics%20in%20the%20journal%20-%20significance,%20confidence,%20and%20all%20that&quot;&gt;http://80-proquest.umi.com.proxy.library.vanderbilt.edu/pqdlink?index=9&amp;amp;did=000000013351636&amp;amp;SrchMode=3&amp;amp;sid=1&amp;amp;Fmt=6&amp;amp;VInst=PROD&amp;amp;VType=PQD&amp;amp;RQT=309&amp;amp;VName=PQD&amp;amp;TS=1093783867&amp;amp;clientId=2335 Editorial: statistics in the journal - significance, confidence, and all that&lt;/a&gt;. Am J Public Health&amp;nbsp;&lt;strong&gt;87&lt;/strong&gt;:1092-1095, 1997.&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a target=&quot;_top&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot; href=&quot;http://www.strobe-statement.org/&quot;&gt;STROBE&lt;/a&gt;&amp;nbsp;guidelines for STrengthening the Reporting of OBservational studies in Epidemiology&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li&gt;The&amp;nbsp;&lt;a target=&quot;_top&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot; href=&quot;http://www.equator-network.org/&quot;&gt;EQUATOR&lt;/a&gt;&amp;nbsp;network for reporting of health research&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li&gt;Peter Norvig's&amp;nbsp;&lt;a target=&quot;_top&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot; href=&quot;http://norvig.com/experiment-design.html&quot;&gt;Common Mistakes&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;a target=&quot;_top&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot; href=&quot;http://www.annfammed.org/content/15/6/504.short&quot;&gt;Reflections from a Statistical Editor&lt;/a&gt;&amp;nbsp;by Miguel Marino&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ul&gt;&lt;p&gt;This topic: Main&lt;span style=&quot;color:#cccccc&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;a rel=&quot;nofollow&quot; href=&quot;http://biostat.mc.vanderbilt.edu/wiki/bin/view/Main/WebHome&quot;&gt;WebHome&lt;/a&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;a rel=&quot;nofollow&quot; href=&quot;http://biostat.mc.vanderbilt.edu/wiki/bin/view/Main/Education&quot;&gt;Education&lt;/a&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;a rel=&quot;nofollow&quot; href=&quot;http://biostat.mc.vanderbilt.edu/wiki/bin/view/Main/HandoutsBioRes&quot;&gt;HandoutsBioRes&lt;/a&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;a rel=&quot;nofollow&quot; href=&quot;http://biostat.mc.vanderbilt.edu/wiki/bin/view/Main/ClinStat&quot;&gt;ClinStat&lt;/a&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:#cccccc&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;ManuscriptChecklist&amp;nbsp;&lt;br&gt;Topic revision:&amp;nbsp;&lt;span style=&quot;color:#666666&quot;&gt;12 May 2018,&amp;nbsp;&lt;a rel=&quot;nofollow&quot; href=&quot;http://biostat.mc.vanderbilt.edu/wiki/bin/view/Main/FrankHarrell&quot;&gt;FrankHarrell&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;</description>
<category>Fundamentos</category>
<guid isPermaLink="true">http://iec.elgui.net/?qa=54/problemas-comuns-evitados-analise-estatistica-resultados&amp;show=55#a55</guid>
<pubDate>Wed, 24 Oct 2018 20:07:31 +0000</pubDate>
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<title>Respondida: Devo usar média com desvio padrão (SE) ou erro padrão da média (SEM) para representar meus resultados?</title>
<link>http://iec.elgui.net/?qa=52/devo-media-desvio-padrao-padrao-media-representar-resultados&amp;show=53#a53</link>
<description>&lt;p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;Eis um argumento relevante para usar SD, ao invés de SEM (retirado de &lt;a target=&quot;_blank&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot; href=&quot;https://www.sportsci.org/resource/stats/meansd.html&quot;&gt;&lt;em&gt;A New View of Statistics,&amp;nbsp;&lt;/em&gt;Will G Hopkins© 2016&lt;/a&gt;):&lt;/p&gt;&lt;blockquote&gt;&lt;p&gt;The standard deviation (SD) represents variation in the values of a variable, whereas the standard error of the mean (SEM) represents the spread that the mean of a sample of the values would have if you kept taking samples. So the SEM gives you an idea of the accuracy of the mean, and the SD gives you an idea of the variability of single observations. The two are related: SEM&amp;nbsp;=&amp;nbsp;SD/(square root of sample size).&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;Some people think you should show SEMs with means, because they think it's important to indicate how accurate the estimate of the mean is. And when you compare two means, they argue that showing the SEMs gives you an idea of whether there is a&amp;nbsp;&lt;a rel=&quot;nofollow&quot; href=&quot;https://www.sportsci.org/resource/stats/generalize.html#more&quot;&gt;statistically significant&lt;/a&gt;&amp;nbsp;difference between the means. All very well, but here's why they're heading down the wrong track:&lt;/p&gt;&lt;ul&gt;&lt;li&gt;For descriptive statistics of your subjects, you need the SD to give the reader an idea of the&amp;nbsp;&lt;a rel=&quot;nofollow&quot; href=&quot;https://www.sportsci.org/resource/stats/simple.html#spread&quot;&gt;spread&lt;/a&gt;&amp;nbsp;between subjects. Showing an SEM with the mean is silly.&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li&gt;When you compare group means, showing SDs conveys an idea of the magnitude of the difference between the means, because you can see how big the difference is relative to the SDs. In other words, you can see how big the&amp;nbsp;&lt;a rel=&quot;nofollow&quot; href=&quot;https://www.sportsci.org/resource/stats/effect.html&quot;&gt;effect size&lt;/a&gt;&amp;nbsp;is.&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li&gt;It's important to visualize the SDs when there are several groups, because if the SDs differ too much, you may have to use&amp;nbsp;&lt;a rel=&quot;nofollow&quot; href=&quot;https://www.sportsci.org/resource/stats/logtrans.html&quot;&gt;log transformation&lt;/a&gt;&amp;nbsp;or&amp;nbsp;&lt;a rel=&quot;nofollow&quot; href=&quot;https://www.sportsci.org/resource/stats/nonparms.html&quot;&gt;rank transformation&lt;/a&gt;&amp;nbsp;before you compute confidence limits or p values. If the number of subjects differs between groups, the SEMs won't give you a direct visual impression of whether the SDs differ.&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li&gt;If you think it's important to indicate&amp;nbsp;&lt;a rel=&quot;nofollow&quot; href=&quot;https://www.sportsci.org/resource/stats/generalize.html#more&quot;&gt;statistical significance&lt;/a&gt;, show&amp;nbsp;&lt;a rel=&quot;nofollow&quot; href=&quot;https://www.sportsci.org/resource/stats/pvalues.html&quot;&gt;p values&lt;/a&gt;&amp;nbsp;or&amp;nbsp;&lt;a rel=&quot;nofollow&quot; href=&quot;https://www.sportsci.org/resource/stats/generalize.html#more&quot;&gt;confidence limits&lt;/a&gt;&amp;nbsp;of the outcome statistic That's more accurate than showing SEMs. Besides, does anyone know how much SEMs have to overlap or not overlap before you can say the difference is significant? And does anyone know that the amount of overlap or non-overlap depends on the&amp;nbsp;relative&amp;nbsp;sample sizes?&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a name=&quot;semfig&quot; id=&quot;semfig&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Most importantly, when you have means for pre and post scores in a&amp;nbsp;&lt;a rel=&quot;nofollow&quot; href=&quot;https://www.sportsci.org/resource/stats/repanova.html&quot;&gt;repeated-measures&lt;/a&gt;&amp;nbsp;experiment, the SEMs of these means do NOT give an impression of statistical significance of the change--a subtle point that challenges many statisticians. So if the SEMs don't show statistical significance in experiments, what's the point of having them anywhere else?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;Here's a figure to illustrate why SEMs don't convey statistical significance. It's for imaginary data in an experiment to increase jump height. The change in height is significant (p=0.03) when the measurement of jump height has high reliability, but not significant (p=0.2) when the reliability is low. But the SEMs are the same in both cases:&lt;br&gt;&lt;img src=&quot;https://www.sportsci.org/resource/stats/sdsem.gif&quot; alt=&quot;image&quot; style=&quot;margin-top: 6px; margin-bottom: 6px;&quot;&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ul&gt;&lt;ul&gt;&lt;li&gt;The SEMs of the post-pre change scores in a treatment and control group&amp;nbsp;would&amp;nbsp;indicate statistical significance. But if you show the change scores, you should show the confidence interval for the change, not the SEM. You should also show the SD of the change scores for the treatment and control groups, because a substantial increase in the SD of the change scores in a treatment group relative to a control group indicates&amp;nbsp;&lt;a rel=&quot;nofollow&quot; href=&quot;https://www.sportsci.org/resource/stats/relyappl.html#individ&quot;&gt;individual responses&lt;/a&gt;&amp;nbsp;to the treatment. SEMs of the change scores would alert you to the possibility of individual responses only if the sample size was the same in both groups.&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ul&gt;&lt;p&gt;So when you see SEMs in a publication, smile, then mentally convert them into SDs to see how big the differences are between the groups. For example, if there are 25 subjects in a group, increase the size of the SEM by a factor of 5 (=&amp;nbsp;square root of 25) to turn it into an SD.&amp;nbsp;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;The bottom line: never show SEMs. Never. Trust me.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;</description>
<category>Fundamentos</category>
<guid isPermaLink="true">http://iec.elgui.net/?qa=52/devo-media-desvio-padrao-padrao-media-representar-resultados&amp;show=53#a53</guid>
<pubDate>Mon, 13 Aug 2018 13:32:19 +0000</pubDate>
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<title>Respondida: Onde encontro informações sobre proteínas fluorescentes habitualmente usadas em pesquisa?</title>
<link>http://iec.elgui.net/?qa=43/encontro-informacoes-proteinas-fluorescentes-habitualmente&amp;show=44#a44</link>
<description>&lt;p&gt;Eis uma ótima figura informativa à respeito:&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;a target=&quot;_blank&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot; href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19771329&quot;&gt;&lt;img alt=&quot;PMID19771329, Fig. 9&quot; src=&quot;http://gdurl.com/oi03&quot; style=&quot;height:312px; width:640px&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;Fonte:&amp;nbsp;Zimmer M.&amp;nbsp;&lt;a rel=&quot;nofollow&quot; href=&quot;https://drive.google.com/file/d/0B2xOuWMPrivcMWwyRzNYV0hZZG8/view?usp=sharing&quot;&gt;GFP: from jellyfish to the Nobel prize and beyond&lt;/a&gt;. Chem Soc Rev. 38(10):2823-32, 2009. [PMID:&amp;nbsp;&lt;a target=&quot;_blank&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot; href=&quot;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19771329&quot;&gt;19771329&lt;/a&gt;]&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;No LabDocs, temos material disponível nas pastas à seguir:&lt;/p&gt;&lt;ol&gt;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a target=&quot;_blank&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot; href=&quot;https://drive.google.com/drive/folders/0B2xOuWMPrivcNXRhVVBPclRwTVU?usp=sharing&quot;&gt;Techniques &amp;gt; Fluorescence&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a target=&quot;_blank&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot; href=&quot;https://drive.google.com/drive/folders/0B2xOuWMPrivcMGgzMndqMDZwRXM?usp=sharing&quot;&gt;Reagents &amp;gt; Fluorescence&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;</description>
<category>Fundamentos</category>
<guid isPermaLink="true">http://iec.elgui.net/?qa=43/encontro-informacoes-proteinas-fluorescentes-habitualmente&amp;show=44#a44</guid>
<pubDate>Fri, 07 Jul 2017 15:50:13 +0000</pubDate>
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<title>Respondida: Como estimar a concentração de proteínas?</title>
<link>http://iec.elgui.net/?qa=24/como-estimar-a-concentracao-de-proteinas&amp;show=25#a25</link>
<description>&lt;p&gt;Eis um texto bem elucidativo à respeito:&lt;/p&gt;&lt;ul&gt;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a target=&quot;_blank&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot; href=&quot;http://info.gbiosciences.com/blog/bid/164578/Bradford-Protein-Assay-Calculation-of-An-Unknown-Standard&quot;&gt;Bradford Protein Assay: Calculation of An Unknown Standard&lt;/a&gt;&amp;nbsp;(&lt;span style=&quot;font-size:small&quot;&gt;Posted by Protein Man on Nov 15, 2012 12:08:00 PM).&lt;/span&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;a target=&quot;_blank&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot; href=&quot;https://drive.google.com/file/d/0B2xOuWMPrivcZ1hzSk5GSUtSSTQ/view?usp=sharing&quot;&gt;PDF neste link&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ul&gt;</description>
<category>Fundamentos</category>
<guid isPermaLink="true">http://iec.elgui.net/?qa=24/como-estimar-a-concentracao-de-proteinas&amp;show=25#a25</guid>
<pubDate>Fri, 17 Feb 2017 23:03:37 +0000</pubDate>
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<title>Respondida: Ondo encontro informações sobre os fundamentos dos ensaios para análise de viabilidade, citotoxicidade e morte celular?</title>
<link>http://iec.elgui.net/?qa=13/encontro-informacoes-fundamentos-viabilidade-citotoxicidade&amp;show=14#a14</link>
<description>&lt;p&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:#222222; font-family:arial,helvetica,sans-serif&quot;&gt;Literatura recomendada:&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;ul&gt;&lt;li&gt;&lt;a target=&quot;_blank&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot; href=&quot;https://drive.google.com/open?id=0B2xOuWMPrivcbi1BeDk3cFp3WlU&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;Cell Viability Assays (Bookshelf_NBK144065)&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/a&gt;,&amp;nbsp;​também disponível em&amp;nbsp;&lt;a target=&quot;_blank&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot; href=&quot;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK144065/&quot;&gt;https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK144065/&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ul&gt;&lt;div&gt;Mais especificamente, consultar o capítulo&amp;nbsp;&quot;&lt;strong&gt;Cell Proliferation Assays: Improved Homogeneous Methods Used to Measure the Number of Cells in Culture&quot;.&amp;nbsp;&lt;/strong&gt;Disponível via &lt;a target=&quot;_blank&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot; href=&quot;https://www.researchgate.net/publication/265229960_Cell_Proliferation_Assays_Improved_Homogeneous_Methods_Used_to_Measure_the_Number_of_Cells_in_Culture&quot;&gt;ResearchGate&lt;/a&gt;&amp;nbsp;(Membros ViriCan: &lt;a target=&quot;_blank&quot; rel=&quot;nofollow&quot; href=&quot;https://drive.google.com/file/d/0B2xOuWMPrivcaElkdmh6cHNmTkE/view?usp=sharing&quot;&gt;PDF disponível no LabDocs&lt;/a&gt;).&amp;nbsp;DOI: 10.1016/B978-012164730-8/50005-8&lt;/div&gt;</description>
<category>Fundamentos</category>
<guid isPermaLink="true">http://iec.elgui.net/?qa=13/encontro-informacoes-fundamentos-viabilidade-citotoxicidade&amp;show=14#a14</guid>
<pubDate>Thu, 16 Feb 2017 19:24:28 +0000</pubDate>
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